Macedonian Reforms and Muslim Opposition during the Hamidian Era: 1878-1908


Part:1 Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations*
Reforms granted to the Christian communities in the Macedonian provinces after the Berlin Treaty (1878) did not bring tranquillity but rather contributed to the escalation of the existing turmoil. In addition, the worsening situation and the diminishing role of the Ottoman administration as a result of European interference created concern, but more importantly caused an intensification of religious sentiment among the Muslims. As a result, various classes of Macedonian Muslims, urban and rural, peasants and professionals, joined forces to prevent a further decline in their circumstances by demanding reform to the central administration.

In the late nineteenth century there were no groups who called themselves 'Christian Macedonians', though there were Bulgarians, Greeks, Serbs and Vlachs who were Christians and filled with national aspirations, and Europeans failed to understand this crucial aspect of the Macedonian Question. Reforms granted to the European provinces of the Ottoman Empire under article 23 of the Berlin Treaty (1878) were inevitably going to encourage different Christian communities still living under the Ottoman domains. However, the Europeans underestimated the sensitivity of the situation and hoped to bring at least temporary tranquillity to the existing turmoil.

During the nineteenth century, Ottoman statesmen tried to adopt European-style reforms in the fields of administration, education and the military, and hoped these Western reforms would regenerate the Empire and prevent further European intervention as well as curb the separatist activities of Christian subjects. In the meantime, the Great Powers designed 'reform projects' for the Christian communities of the Empire, as in the case of Crete, Eastern Rumelia and, later, Armenia and Macedonia. The Ottoman authorities believed that these reforms gave encouragement to the Christian communities to take advantage of Ottoman weakness and express their national aspirations. However, the Ottoman fear of losing further territories made them defer to the wishes of Europe, though they obstructed the implementation of the projects.

Like his predecessors, Sultan Abdulhamid II (1876-1909) was unwilling to implement reforms imposed on the Christians by the Great Powers, but at the same time he was a dedicated reformer aiming to rejuvenate the Empire by adopting Western innovations. However, during the early years of his reign, Abdulhamid had to face defeat by Russia and isolation in the international arena, and therefore he had no other choice than to accept all the European proposals imposed on him at the Berlin Congress.The Berlin Treaty signed at the end of the Congress left the Sultan and the Ottoman officials with some serious concerns about the implications of the European projects.

The first concern was the growth of the national aspirations of the Christian communities, for with the reforms they would only be encouraged further. The second was the growing interference of the West in the domestic affairs of the Empire and the possible dangers that might follow. The third was the growth of Muslim opposition towards the reform projects. Therefore, as far as was within their power, the Ottoman authorities delayed or obstructed the implementation of the European reform projects designed for the Christian communities.

by AHSENE GÜL TOKAY



[*As the text entitled 'Macedonian Reforms and Muslim Opposition during the Hamidian Era: 1878-1908' is very long, I decided to divide into four parts (according to their titles) in order to make it easy to read. The other three parts will be added one by one.]